Necessary Assumption Questions, Negation Test, and Must Be True Qs

Last week, I discussed the difference between necessary assumption questions and sufficient assumption questions.

I've already covered some strategies for sufficient assumption questions, but I haven't yet written about necessary assumption questions.

In this blog post, I discuss a common, and effective, strategy for approaching these questions.

I also talk about shortcomings in the way prep companies often teach test-takers to think about necessary assumption questions.

Finally, I give some examples of necessary assumption questions and explain some frequent patterns in each.

A Common and Effective Strategy for Necessary Assumption Questions: The "Negation" / "Denial" test

As the name implies, this "test" requires you to negate each of the answer choices. The correct answer choice, when negated, renders the argument invalid. The argument cannot be valid if the necessary assumption is not true. After all, the necessary assumption is, in fact, necessary for the argument to work

I agree with the consensus that this is a good way to approach necessary assumption questions.


How does this work in practice?

Ask yourself as you read each answer choice, does this *need* to be true for the evidence to require the conclusion?

Well, if it weren't true, what would happen? Would the argument be able to coexist with the negated answer choice?

If it would not be able to, then it is the necessary assumption, so it's our answer.


Again, the correct answer choice needs to be true in order for the argument to work. As the common question stems suggest (examples of those in Difference Between Necessary and Sufficient Assumption Questions), the argument depends upon the assumption being true, requires that it is true, and assumes that it is true.



A Quick Note on Negating Answer Choices

Make sure to translate the answer choice into its logical opposite, not its polar opposite.

Example:

The polar opposite of the statement "All people are standing" is "All people are not standing." In English, that means "No people are standing." It's the other extreme. We don't want this.

The logical opposite of the statement "All people are standing" would be, "It is not the case that all people are standing." In English, that means "Not all people are standing" or "Some people are not standing."



Necessary Assumption Questions Do Not Bring in New Information

Many categorization systems correctly place Must Be True questions under the umbrella of Inference questions (those asking for information we already know to be true based on the stimulus).

However, they typically categorize Necessary Assumption questions differently, placing them with  Strengthen and Sufficient Assumption questions. This is a mistake. Necessary Assumptions don't simply help the argument, and they certainly don't bring new information to the table, as Strengthen questions and Sufficient Assumption questions do.

Necessary Assumptions are things we already know to be true based upon the stimulus.



Necessary Assumption Questions are Really Must Be True Questions in Disguise

In all the LSAT materials I've looked at (and I've looked at quite a few), the authors place Necessary Assumption questions in a separate category from Must Be True questions.

In fact, the negation test described above works precisely because Necessary Assumption questions are Must Be True questions in disguise. I proved it to you above when I plucked key words from Necessary Assumption question stems: "depends upon," "requires," and "assumes." Something required to be true is something that must be true.

We could easily take any Necessary Assumption question, remove its question stem, and replace it with a Must Be True question stem, such as the following:

If all of the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?

Nothing would change. The Necessary Assumption question's credited response would answer this question as well because the necessary assumption must be true if we assume the argument is valid.



Why Does the LSAT Even Have Necessary Assumption Questions?

Why not just ask Must Be True questions all the time? Why does LSAC even bother with these? What makes them different from Must Be True questions?

-Must Be True questions often involve connecting a few different pieces of information from the stimulus. (See PrepTest 29, Section 4, Question 23, p42 in Next 10, or see PrepTest 33, Section 3, Question 8 - p170 in Next 10.)

-They often involve formal logic and are simply fact sets, rather than arguments (PrepTest 30, Section 2, Question 18 - p59 in Next 10, or see PrepTest 32, Section 1, Question 7 - p120 in Next 10).

In short, they require you to make various types of connections between different pieces of information in the stimulus.

Necessary Assumption questions, on the other hand, ask for a more specific type of information that must be true. They ask for something that must be true in order for the argument itself to be valid.



Examples:

By this point, you're probably foaming at the mouth for some examples of necessary assumption questions, so I've some picked out for you:

Common Necessary Assumption Question Pattern #1
PrepTest 30 (December 1999), Section 2, Questions 15 and 22 (pages 58 and 60 in Next 10, respectively)

In each of these questions, the stimulus' argument makes the claim only one thing needs to be true for something to occur. For each of these questions, the correct answer dismisses a potential problem that might otherwise prevent the conclusion from logically following.

Common Necessary Assumption Question Pattern #2
PrepTest 37 (June 2002), Section 4, Questions 15 and 19 (pages 312 and 313 in Next 10, respectively)

In each of these questions, the stimulus' argument mentions something new in the conclusion that was never mentioned in the evidence. They also mention something in the evidence that was never mentioned in the conclusion. As such, the new thing in the conclusion needs to be made relevant in some way for its presence in the conclusion to be justified. If it were not relevant to the evidence in any way, the argument would not be valid.


***

P.S. To be clear, I think of Necessary Assumption questions as a specific kind of must be true question - they are asking for something slightly different (an unstated / implicit premise). It's a different question type for a reason. But I certainly wouldn't think of them as being a type of strengthen question.

There's still a difference in terms of approach (which is likely why they're separate question-types).
To elaborate, what I'm saying is - what if you took that entire series of statements, i.e. the entire text of the stimulus, as given? Wouldn't all underlying necessary assumptions need to be true?

For Necessary Assumption Qs (and Must Be True Qs), gravitate more towards moderate language - it's more likely to be correct (supported by the stimulus) than more extreme language would be.


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LSAT Anxiety and Procrastination Tips | Interview

I recently interviewed Kelly Roell, from the Test Prep About.com site, via email. Our discussion follows.

1. Many people have difficulty sitting down and focusing when it's time to study for the LSAT. Suddenly, checking Facebook, cleaning out the spam folder in your email, and baking bread from scratch all seem like immediate concerns. What are some ways that test-takers can force themselves to sit down and look at their LSAT books?

A test-taker has to learn how to focus. First, set yourself up for success by getting rid of obvious distractions like the cell phone and t.v., getting yourself a beverage and snack beforehand, and choosing an appropriate time to study. Once you're settled, do something physical while you're studying if you're antsy and train your mind to get rid of distractions.


2. Given that the LSAT is such a high-stakes exam, what are some ways to make the stress manageable?

Best stress busters:

* Go for a run – Science has proven that a good sweat session positively uses the adrenaline that leads to physical stress symptoms. Take a run early on the day of the exam to calm the nerves

* Practice yoga – The deep, stretching movements and the meditation that goes along with yoga can calm the mind, thus reducing stress. Only do this on the day of the exam, though, if you're practiced. If you try it without knowing what you're doing, you'll only add to the stress.

* Be confident – If you've prepared well, there's no reason you shouldn't do your very best on test day. Go in with a confident attitude. Tell yourself that you're the smartest you've ever been and can do anything you set your mind to – whatever it takes to boost your self-esteem. Those with the highest self-esteem will succeed when no one else does.


3. What are some ways test-takers can cope if they freeze up on Test Day?

Set realistic expectations, envision something positive, use positive language, repeat an uplifting phrase, and shoot down negative thoughts.


4. How can test-takers make the 3-week-wait for their test scores more bearable?

First, you should get support. Let people know that you're anxiously awaiting your scores. Post it all over Facebook. Call your mom. Get your friends and family to rally around you so you have a support system if the scores aren't what you want.

Secondly, go out and celebrate with those friends and family. You did it! You took the LSAT. Regardless of your test scores, you have to be proud of yourself for having the guts to do it. Not many people do!

Last, distract yourself with something fun. Chances are good you've spent the last few months holed up in a room studying yourself sick. Relax. Go do something fun you've never done before. The adrenaline rush you get from experiencing something new and exciting will lessen the anxiety of the wait.

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Difference Between Necessary & Sufficient Assumption Questions

Both Necessary Assumption and Sufficient Assumption questions contain the word "assumption" within the question stem. However, they ask for very different things.


(Also see Sufficient Assumption Questions and the Negation Test.)


This is why it's misleading (and often confusing) to simply refer to both types under the catch-all category of "Assumption" questions.

Others refer to Necessary Assumption questions as "Assumption" questions, and Sufficient Assumption questions as "Justify" questions. However, referring to Sufficient Assumption questions as "Justify" questions is often confusing for test-takers for two major reasons.

Many test-takers mistakenly believe:

1. The question stem must contain the word "justify" in order to be a "Justify" question (i.e. they believe the word "justify" is a necessary condition for it to be a sufficient assumption question).

In fact, Sufficient Assumption questions rarely contain the word "justify."


2. Any question stem containing the word "justify" is a "Justify" question (i.e. they believe the word "justify" is a sufficient condition for it to be a sufficient assumption question).

In fact, "Strengthen" and "Strengthen Principle" questions often contain the word "justify" as well.


Basically, the presence of the word "assumption" doesn't tell you what type of question you're dealing with, and neither does the word "justify".

So...how do you tell the difference?

Instead of focusing on the noun "assumption," focus on the verb in the question stem.

The following indicators are presented in a rough decreasing order of frequency as they appear in PrepTests 50-58, whenever possible. If your materials refer to PrepTests by month and year instead, please see this list.


Necessary Assumption questions often contain the words:

"Depends"
Example #1: "Which one of the following is an assumption that the fund-raiser's argument depends on?"
(PrepTest 56, Section 3, Question 18)

Example #2: "Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends for its conclusion to be properly drawn?"
(PrepTest 52, Section 1, Question 10)


"Requires"
Example: "Which one of the following is an assumption the bureaucrat's argument requires?"
(PrepTest 55, Section 3, Question 19)


"Required"
Example: "Which one of the following is an assumption required by the dietitian's argument?"
(PrepTest 56, Section 2, Question 6)


"Relies"
Example: "Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies?" (PrepTest 56, Section 3, Question 9)


The following three are significantly less common:

"Makes"
Example: "The argument makes which one of the following assumptions?"
(PrepTest 56, Section 2, Question 4)


"Necessary"
Example: "Which one of the following is an assumption necessary for the critic's conclusion to be properly drawn?"
(PrepTest 55, Section 1, Question 12)

(Granted, the word "necessary" is not a verb, but it's a pretty telling indicator that this is a necessary assumption question. If you really want a verb there, we could substitute the word "required" for "necessary.")


"Assumes"
Example: "The argument assumes that"
(PrepTest 30, Section 2, Question 15 - page 58 in Next 10)



Sufficient Assumption questions often contain the words:

"Follows logically if...assumed"
Example #1: "The argument's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?"
(June 2007 LSAT, Section 2, Question 6)

Example #2: "The critic's conclusion logically follows if which one of the following is assumed?" (PrepTest 56, Section 2, Question 10)

(The above language is an extremely common indicator of sufficient assumption questions, so I'm including two examples. Yes, LSAC can play with the order of words. They do so in the following example as well.)


"Properly inferred if...assumed"
Example: "Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion of the therapist's argument to be properly inferred?"
(PrepTest 56, Section 3, Question 16)


"Properly drawn if...assumed"
Example: "The argument's conclusion is properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed?"
(PrepTest 55, Section 1, Question 4)


"Enables"
Example: "Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the conclusion of the argument to be properly drawn?"
(PrepTest 54, Section 4, Question 22)


"Allows"
Example: "Which one of the following is an assumption that would allow the conclusion above to be properly drawn?"
(June 2007 LSAT, Section 2, Question 15)


"Justifies"
Example: "Which one of the following is an assumption that would serve to justify the conclusion above?"
(PrepTest 4, Section 1, Question 2 in LSAT TriplePrep, Volume 1, one of the books of rare PrepTests.)


***

By the way, here's how to tell a Strengthen Principle question from a Sufficient Assumption (Justify) question when both contain some version of the word "justify":

A Strengthen question says something like, "most helps to justify." The "most helps" part indicates you're looking to strengthen it --- to some degree.

Example #1: "Which one of the following principles most helps to justify the mathematics teacher's argument?"
(PrepTest 55, Section 1, Question 6)

Example #2: "Which one of the following, if assumed, most helps to justify the reasoning above?"
(PrepTest 50, Section 4, Question 9)

A Sufficient Assumption (Justify) question asks you to "justify the conclusion" - meaning the correct answer will justify it all the way --- 100%.


***

Also see: Arguments and Contrapositives | Necessary and Sufficient Assumptions


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LSAC and LSAT Fee Waiver Score Report Delays

Several blog readers who requested LSAT fee waivers from LSAC recently contacted me to report delays in receiving their LSAT scores. I've decided to do a post showcasing a few of their stories. My brief comments follow their emails.

Blog reader LK, who took the September LSAT, recently wrote to me with the following (slightly edited for brevity and clarity):

I graduated from college in January. I've spent the last 10 months interning with an international non-profit in Guatemala City. The office is essentially a free law firm for children who have been victims of sexual abuse, and alongside our casework the Guatemalan staff are working to strengthen the public justice system in Guatemala. I'm the oldest child in a large, low-income family in Michigan.

Because I didn't decide until late in the year to apply to schools during this admission cycle, I was behind on most of the things I needed to do before applying. I applied for my fee waiver in early October, after taking the September LSAT. The application for the fee waiver itself was fairly simple. The process began with a short questionnaire, then requested bank and tax records from me and from my parents. LSAC's system was easy enough.

After weeks of anticipation, the day before scores were scheduled to be reported I recieved an email from LSAC saying that my score was available, but I wouldn't be able to see it until LSAC finished reviewing my fee waiver application. When I first found out my LSAT score was delayed, I was understandably upset. I couldn't understand the connection between my score on a test which I had paid for in full and LSAC's review process. I emailed LSAC immediately but they only emailed me back repeating the content of their original email. I had never thought for a second that applying for the fee waiver would affect my ability to know my score; I had seen that it put a hold on my account but didn't realize what that meant.

Finally about a week later LSAC approved my fee waiver request and notified me that my score was available in my account. It caused a lot of tears and frustration and stole a week from me. I hope that won't have a negative impact on my applications but I guess that's yet to be seen. My frustration was increased because I was more or less ready to apply and only waiting to find out how I did on the LSAT. It did mean that I applied later than I wanted to;

Perhaps the most frustrating thing about the whole matter is that the same day this all occurred, I started recieving emails from law schools congratulating me on my "excellent record." I'd love to find out if these were just emails the schools sent to everyone, or if LSAC released my score before I even knew about it.

Obviously, I wish I would have filed the fee waiver request earlier in hopes that it would have been accepted or denied before the score release date. For others looking for a fee waiver, read the conditions carefully. I believe that when I submitted the request I agreed that my account would be put on hold until a decision was made. However, I did not connect an "account hold" with a delay in score reporting and somehow missed reading that fact on LSAC's website. I do believe that, probably unintentionally, LSAC put me, a person in financial need at a disadvantage through this process. However, I'm not sure I could have avoided this situation without previous knowledge of the delayed score release (I needed to submit the fee waiver request in order to move forward with my applications) I think that with more careful timing others can avoid it.

Another blog reader who took the September LSAT shared a similar story:

Not receiving my LSAT score for two weeks was a torturous affair.

Basically, I filled out the fee waiver application online, but the mechanistic formula used by LSAC said I was ineligible because my cash reserves were too large. I had compelling reasons for having a decent amount of money in my account, and similarly good reasons as to why I was unable to use that money for application fees. This was in early October.

Being unemployed and stressed about finances in the week before scores came out, I tried to appeal the decision. Little did I know, clicking "Appeal" initiates the appeal process, with no intermediate steps. I could either fax in a letter to cancel, or send in my documentation. I chose the latter, and my documents were received on Wednesday the 14th.

It was not explicitly stated on the appeal page that I would not receive me score, so when scores came out Friday night, I was quite disappointed to get an email from "LSAC Score" saying that my account was on hold.

I waited and waited, called and called, and got lots of different estimates from LSAC as to when my score would be available. Finally, after two weeks, I sent in a fax to LSAC saying that I desperately needed to cancel my appeal, as a prospective employer, a law firm, wanted to know my September score. The hold on my account was released within 12 hours, and I got an email saying that my appeal had been denied. Whether the decision was in response to my letter, or whether the timing was a coincidence and they had been looking at my file already, I'll never know.

Based on information from law school admissions officers, it seems fair to say that the earlier one applies, the better one's chances. By not releasing scores to applicants going through the appeal process, LSAC's policy has the effect of disadvantaging those with financial need. I have yet to think of a compelling reason why LSAC would withhold scores from people with accounts that are up to date. The best guess that I can make is that LSAC wants to weed out those who would rather get their score than wait out the appeal. The only problem with that explanation is that LSAC explicitly told me that once documentation is received, appeals cannot be canceled.

I'm still struggling to pay my application fees, and am applying to less than half the schools I wanted to.

Overall the ordeal set me back a full two weeks in my application process. I am writing rather specific essays for each school, and until I knew my score, it was impossible to target individual institutions. Also, some of my recommenders preferred to know my score before submitting their letters.

Why would anyone apply for a fee waiver with all this potential stress?

Reason #1:

You get free stuff worth a few hundred dollars.

LSAC says:

Each approved LSAC fee waiver will entitle you to:

* two LSATs (test dates must fall within the two-year waiver period);
* one registration for LSAC's Credential Assembly Service (LSDAS), which includes the Letter of Recommendation Service and access to electronic applications for all LSAC-member law schools;
* four law school reports
–included with the Credential Assembly Service (LSDAS), available only after final approval of an LSAC fee waiver;
* one copy of the Official LSAT SuperPrep®.

Value of each free thing you get:

2 LSAT Registrations - $132/LSAT registration x 2 = $264

Registration for Credential Assembly Service (LSDAS) = $121

4 Law School Reports - $12/report x 4 = $48

Copy of the Official LSAT SuperPrep book = $18


Total savings from LSAC if you take the LSAT once: $132 + $121 + $48 + 18 = $319
Total savings from LSAC if you take the LSAT twice: $264 + $121 + $48 + 18 = $451

(Note that a Test Day cancellation will count as 1 of the 2 free fee waivers, but a Test Day absence will not. More on cancellations vs. absences after missing the postponement deadline in Cancel, Postpone, or Absence?)


Reason #2:

Many law schools automatically grant application fee waivers to anyone approved for a fee waiver from LSAC. This has the potential to save you hundreds of dollars, depending upon the number of schools to which you apply. (Of course, you may qualify for law school application fee waivers even if you don't qualify for an LSAC fee waiver. However, an LSAC fee waiver simplifies the process for you.)


Reason #3:

You might unexpectedly qualify for a fee waiver.

LSAC refuses to disclose its guidelines for who it considers worthy of a fee waiver. This *may* indicate that its top-secret guidelines are nonexistent, subjective, or holistic. If you think you may have a shot at fitting their secret definition of "extreme need," you have little to lose by applying.


Lessons learned from LSAC and LSAT Score Report Delays:

If you're submitting a fee waiver, submit it early - ideally, far in advance of taking the LSAT. Make sure you promptly submit all relevant documents that they request. If you don't get the fee waiver taken care of early, it might prevent you from applying as early as you'd like and hurt your chances of admission.


Statistics on Fee Waivers

I found the following information in an LSAC PowerPoint presentation from 2009. I assume these figures are for a one-year period:

Approximately 11,000 requests (for fee waivers)
97% (are submitted) online
62% are approved
Tax documents must be sent within 45 days
1000 appeals, 39% (of appeals are) approved

Further Reading:

LSAC (how to apply for a fee waiver)

UMass Pre-Law Blog (a few years old, but contains info from LSAC about score release holds)

***

Have you applied for a fee waiver? If so, what was your experience like? Anything similar to those described in the emails posted above?

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LSAT Words: "Except" "unless" "until" and "without" mean...

I've talked about Sufficient and Necessary Condition indicator words before.

However, I left out a couple of important words (except, unless, until, and without) that factor into conditional reasoning.

These special words don't *quite* fit the mold that the others do, so I decided to give them their own article.

The words "except," "unless," "until," and "without" frequently appear in the Logical Reasoning section of the LSAT. Their presence often trips up test-takers who have difficulty deciding whether to associate them with the sufficient condition or the necessary condition. The truth is that these words don't neatly fall within either category. The condition with which you associate them should depend upon your approach to translating them.

This article will cover two common methods that test-takers can use to correctly translate statements containing these words.

Note: I'm not a fan of Method #1, so just skip to Method #2 if you're not interested in the nitty-gritty.


Method #1: Replace these words with the phrase "If not." This means that you're taking these words to represent the negation of the sufficient condition.

In other words, you're negating whatever immediately follows the words "except," "unless," "until," and "without" and turning that thing, when negated, into the sufficient condition.


The phrase "Not B unless A" would become "Not B if not A." Rearranged in the traditional "If-then" form (sufficient ---> necessary), this would be "If not A, not B."

Diagrammed: Not A ---> Not B

Contrapositive: B ---> A



Example of Method #1 with words replacing variables:

It's not Thanksgiving (B) unless there's turkey (A). (I know it's not Thanksgiving for a few weeks, but I'm hungry for turkey and stuffing now.)

With "if not" replacing "unless":

It's not Thanksgiving if there's no turkey.

Diagrammed: No turkey ---> Not Thanksgiving.

Contrapositive: Thanksgiving ---> turkey.


I'm not a huge fan of this method. Although it seems to be an incredibly simple technique for dealing with these annoying words, it often requires additional steps that Method #2 (below) doesn't.


Remember how we rearranged the order from "Not B if not A" to "If Not A, then Not B" so that the sufficient condition would be in front? Then, we had to take the contrapositive because dealing with a conditional statement involving two negative statements.

Without taking the contrapositive, this method turns "No X unless Y" into "Not Y ---> Not X." We then have to take the contrapositive to create "X ---> Y."


Method #2: Take any of the annoying words ("except," "unless," "until," and "without") as introducing the necessary condition. In other words, whatever immediately follows one of these words is your necessary condition.

Then, whatever other clause is present in the conditional statement will, when negated, become your sufficient condition.


The phrase "Not B unless A" would first become "Not B then A." However, we're not done yet - we still have to negate "Not B" to become "B."

So we have B ---> A. No need to take the contrapositive or rearrange anything.


Example of Method #2 with words replacing variables:

"It's not Thanksgiving (B) unless there's turkey (A)." would first become:

"Not Thanksgiving ---> there's turkey" BUT

we still have to negate "Not Thanksgiving" to become "Thanksgiving."

This gives us "Thanksgiving ---> turkey."

(Meaning that we've directly turned "No X unless Y" into "X ---> Y")

Note: Of course, the sentences containing these words don't always follow the "negative variable - annoying word - positive variable" (No X unless Y) format (or the identical "unless Y, no X" format), so Method #2 isn't always incredibly superior to Method #1. However, I find that Method #2 more frequently gives you a positive and useful conditional statement than Method #1 does.

Keeping the variables positive is especially important when forming long conditional chains. See PrepTest 30 (December 1999), Section 2, Question 18 (page 59 in Next 10) for an example.



RELATED: LSAT Numbers: All, Most, Several, Many, Some, None

Test Day Stress and Anxiety? | Tips, Links, and mp3

I recently wrote a bit on preparing for Test Day in LSAT Test Center Problems | How To Prepare For The Worst, and I've written several other articles with Test Day Tips in the past.

However, reader Wei W. requested some tips on dealing with Test Day stress. The fact that she posted her comment at 3AM Eastern indicates that she might already be losing sleep over this (or just that she lives in another part of the world).

Just in case it's the former, I've decided to grant Wei's wish and do an article on this. I'm not a psychologist, and I'd rather not join the oft-sketchy self-help industry or peddle CDs with the sound of waves crashing, so I've compiled several links on the topic of Test Day stress and anxiety.

The following resources are not LSAT-specific and contain some generic advice. However, since test anxiety is not an LSAT-specific issue, you may find some nuggets of wisdom within the following links.

I hope to feature some LSAT-specific advice about these issues on LSAT Blog in the near future, but in the meantime, I'd love to hear your tips on dealing with test-related stress and anxiety. Please share them!

The LSAT, Meditation, Concentration, and Focus

Test and performance anxiety

Information about Test Anxiety

Test anxiety / relaxation podcasts (mp3s)

Test Anxiety, University of Buffalo

Understanding and Overcoming Test Anxiety

How to Keep Calm During Tests (PDF)

Reducing Test Anxiety (PDF)

***

Also see the free LSAT proctor mp3 for something that can reduce Test Day stress.

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Creating an LSAT Test Day Playlist | Songs and mp3

One way to reduce Test Day stress is to listen to music that will PUMP. YOU. UP.

Listen to these before taking a practice test, and listen to them on the way to your test center, if you like.

Besides, creating a playlist isn't procrastinating if it helps you do well on the LSAT, right?

If you're too lazy to create your own playlist, or you don't know what an mp3 is, Jock Jams works well. If you're really short on time, I highly recommend the 3-minute Jock Jam Megamix (wiki). I guess you could always just listen to that on repeat, but you'd probably get sick of it before long.

These sites are good if you'd rather just have some white noise:

http://www.rainymood.com/
http://simplynoise.com/

A few weeks ago on the LSAT Blog Fan Page, blog reader Justin suggested the following songs for "getting you pumped before a practice test":

1. CAKE - "The Distance"
2. Survivor - Eye of the Tiger (Rocky 3)
3. Paul Engemann - Push it to the Limit (Scarface) (1983)
4. Europe - The Final Countdown (also see this, Arrested Development fans)

I agree - these are all great choices. I'd like to add anything by Rage Against the Machine, particularly "Wake Up" and "Vietnow," A-Trak's remix of Stronger by Kanye West, I Run This by Birdman, and Planisphere by Justice. I could go on and on, but I'll let you make your own playlist.

Tip - only listen to the songs on your playlist before taking each practice test and on Test Day. You want to train yourself to associate these songs with rocking the LSAT.

I'd love to hear your recommendations. What songs will you include in your LSAT playlist?

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Most Strongly Supported Logical Reasoning Questions

Many prep companies make the mistake of failing to distinguish between Most Strongly Supported and Must Be True.


They place "Most Supported" / "Most Strongly Supported" Logical Reasoning questions under the category of "Must Be True" questions. This is incorrect.

It's understandable.

After all, the answer to a Most Strongly Supported question is sometimes something that Must Be True. After all, something that Must Be True based upon the stimulus can certainly be said to be the Most Strongly Supported of the answer choices. It's 100% supported by the stimulus, and you can't support something more than 100%.

For this reason, you can sometimes treat Most Strongly Supported questions like Must Be True / Inference questions.

However, keep in mind that the test-writers have some wiggle-room with Most Supported questions. The question is not asking for what Must Be True, so our task is not always to find something that Must Be True.

Instead, we must look for what's Most Supported among the choices, and the correct answer choice will not necessarily be supported 100% of the way. While it's certainly easier when the correct answer happens to be something that Must Be True, the correct answer choice does not necessarily have to be true. If you find yourself staring at 5 choices, and none of them appears to be a Must, look for the answer choice that's Most Likely To Be True.

To summarize:

It's incorrect to treat Most Strongly Supported questions as Must Be True questions because the correct answer doesn't necessarily need to be true. It's just the answer choice that's most likely to be true.

Examples:
I've picked two examples from The Next 10 Actual Official LSAT PrepTests, and an example from a recent LSAT PrepTest, to illustrate the difference.

First, a Most Strongly Supported question where the correct answer Must Be True:

PrepTest 36 (December 2001), Section 1, Question 16 (page 258 in Next 10)

The evidence gives examples of countries with viable economies that have populations of fewer than 7 million - everything listed aside from Switzerland and Austria, which leaves Israel, Ireland, Denmark, and Finland.

Therefore, it must be true that economic viability doesn't require having a population of at least 7 million.

***
Now, a Most Strongly Supported question where the correct answer is Most Likely to Be True but is not necessarily something that Must Be True:

PrepTest 33 (December 2000), Section 3, Question 13 (page 171 in Next 10)

To say that the credited response Must Be True would be to commit the post hoc fallacy (a type of correlation/causation fallacy). Yes, the argument in the stimulus states that once ramps, etc., are installed, wheelchair users come there. However, this is only a correlation.

The sudden arrival of wheelchair users could simply be a coincidence, or perhaps there's something else going on - some third variable at play.

For example, maybe the wheelchair users didn't go to those areas in the past for other reasons. Maybe the non-accommodation-providing business areas were managed by jerks, and their jerkitude was the real reason the wheelchair users didn't frequent the area. Maybe the new business area managers happen to be nice people and the wheelchair users like to hang out with them.

However, out of the 5 choices, it is Most Likely To Be True that the wheelchair users didn't come there in the past due to the lack of proper accommodations.

***

I'm also explaining a Most Strongly Supported question in a recent exam where the answer did not necessarily have to be true.

I'm posting this explanation in the comments to avoid corrupting this recent LSAT PrepTest for those of you who intend to take this as a full-length timed exam. If you like, take a quick peek at the bolded portion of the comment to see if it's from an exam you intend to save for later.

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You can find more information about the difference between Must Be True and Most Strongly Supported on pages 20-22 of LSAC's SuperPrep.

Photo by ms_cwang / CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

LSAT Logic Games Classification List

The following classification covers Logic Games in LSAT PrepTests 39-51 (and June 2007).

(These exams are all available on Amazon.com. In my LSAT study schedules, I recommend saving most of the newer PrepTests for full-length timed practice. In order to avoid "corrupting" those exams, I suggest you avoid looking at this classification for any PrepTest that you plan to take under timed conditions until you've completed that test.)

If your study materials refer to PrepTests by their month and year, rather than by PrepTest number, please see LSAT PrepTests and Dates Administered.

In this blog post, I first group each Logic Game by its classification. At the end of all that, I also classify all Logic Games but place them in order by PrepTest # and date.

(You can also find LSAT Logic Games categorizations for LSAT PrepTests 19-38 and and LSAT PrepTests 52-present.)

I've placed an asterisk (*) next to some games that are especially difficult. I've placed a plus (+) next to some that are especially easy. Of course, difficulty is subjective, so please leave comments!

Logic Games by Classification:

Pure Sequencing
PrepTest 43, Game 2
PrepTest 48, Game 2
PrepTest 50, Game 4 *
PrepTest 51, Game 2
PrepTest 51, Game 4


Basic Linear
PrepTest 40, Game 1
PrepTest 41, Game 1 +
PrepTest 42, Game 2 +
PrepTest 43, Game 1
PrepTest 44, Game 1 +
PrepTest 45, Game 1
PrepTest 46, Game 1 +
PrepTest 46, Game 3
PrepTest 47, Game 1
PrepTest 49, Game 1 *
PrepTest 49, Game 4
PrepTest 50, Game 1
PrepTest 50, Game 3 +
June 2007 LSAT, Game 1
June 2007 LSAT, Game 3

Advanced Linear (aka Combination of Linear and Grouping: Matching)
PrepTest 39, Game 1
PrepTest 39, Game 3
PrepTest 41, Game 2
PrepTest 42, Game 3
PrepTest 43, Game 3

PrepTest 44, Game 3

PrepTest 46, Game 2
PrepTest 47, Game 4
PrepTest 48, Game 4
PrepTest 51, Game 3

Grouping: In-and-Out

PrepTest 39, Game 4
PrepTest 40, Game 4
PrepTest 42, Game 1
PrepTest 45, Game 3
PrepTest 47, Game 2
PrepTest 48, Game 1
PrepTest 49, Game 3
PrepTest 50, Game 2

Grouping: Splitting
PrepTest 41, Game 3


Grouping: Matching
PrepTest 39, Game 2 *
PrepTest 42, Game 4 *
PrepTest 43, Game 4
PrepTest 44, Game 2
PrepTest 44, Game 4 *
PrepTest 45, Game 4
PrepTest 46, Game 4
PrepTest 47, Game 3
PrepTest 48, Game 3
PrepTest 49, Game 2
PrepTest 51, Game 1
June 2007 LSAT, Game 4


Circular Linearity
PrepTest 41, Game 4 *


Grouping: Mapping
PrepTest 40, Game 3 *


Linear / Grouping: In-and-Out
PrepTest 40, Game 2
PrepTest 45, Game 2
June 2007 LSAT, Game 2

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Logic Games by PrepTest # and Date:

PrepTest 39 (December 2002 LSAT)
Game 1 - Advanced Linear
Game 2 - Grouping: Matching *
Game 3 - Advanced Linear
Game 4 - Grouping: In-and-Out

PrepTest 40 (June 2003 LSAT)
Game 1 - Basic Linear -
Game 2 - Linear / Grouping: In-and-Out
Game 3 - Grouping: Mapping *
Game 4 - Grouping: In-and-Out

PrepTest 41 (October 2003 LSAT)
Game 1 - Basic Linear +
Game 2 - Advanced Linear
Game 3 - Grouping: Splitting
Game 4 - Circular Linearity *

PrepTest 42 (December 2003 LSAT)
Game 1 - Grouping: In-and-Out
Game 2 - Basic Linear +
Game 3 - Advanced Linear
Game 4 - Grouping: Matching *

PrepTest 43 (June 2004 LSAT)
Game 1 - Basic Linear
Game 2 - Pure Sequencing
Game 3 - Advanced Linear
Game 4 - Grouping: Matching

PrepTest 44 (October 2004 LSAT)
Game 1 - Basic Linear +
Game 2 - Grouping: Matching
Game 3 - Advanced Linear
Game 4 - Grouping: Matching *

PrepTest 45 (December 2004 LSAT)
Game 1 - Basic Linear
Game 2 - Linear / Grouping: In-and-Out
Game 3 - Grouping: In-and-Out
Game 4 - Grouping: Matching

PrepTest 46 (June 2005 LSAT)
Game 1 - Basic Linear +
Game 2 - Advanced Linear
Game 3 - Basic Linear
Game 4 - Grouping: Matching

PrepTest 47 (October 2005 LSAT)
Game 1 - Basic Linear
Game 2 - Grouping: In-and-Out
Game 3 - Grouping: Matching
Game 4 - Advanced Linear

PrepTest 48 (December 2005 LSAT)
Game 1 - Grouping: In-and-Out
Game 2 - Pure Sequencing
Game 3 - Grouping: Matching
Game 4 - Advanced Linear

PrepTest 49 (June 2006 LSAT)
Game 1 - Basic Linear *
Game 2 - Grouping: Matching
Game 3 - Grouping: In-and-Out
Game 4 - Basic Linear

PrepTest 50 (September 2006 LSAT)
Game 1 - Basic Linear
Game 2 - Grouping: In-and-Out
Game 3 - Basic Linear +
Game 4 - Pure Sequencing *

PrepTest 51 (December 2006 LSAT)
Game 1 - Grouping: Matching
Game 2 - Pure Sequencing
Game 3 - Advanced Linear
Game 4 - Pure Sequencing

June 2007 LSAT (unnumbered - free LSAT PrepTest - PDF)
Game 1 - Basic Linear
Game 2 - Linear / Grouping: In-and-Out
Game 3 - Basic Linear
Game 4 - Grouping: Matching

Photo by chiotsrun

LSAT Logic Games Practice | 7 Games To Practice Before Test Day

Pretend you were taken hostage while studying in the library and could only do 7 Logic Games before Test Day. You can squeeze in one each day while your captors watch their daytime soap operas.

Which 7 Logic Games would you pick? Which are the most important?

This blog post lists what I consider to be 7 foundational Logic Games (all are purposely drawn from The Next 10 Actual Official LSAT PrepTests).

If you did nothing but these 7 games, you'd be exposed to the pure (non-combination/non-hybrid) games of each common type of Logic Game. Even if you're not taken hostage, make sure you fully understand each of these 7 games before Test Day.

1. PrepTest 38 (Oct 2002), Game 1 - Pure Sequencing - Circus car with clowns - page 330

2. PrepTest 30 (Dec 1999), Game 4 - Basic Linear - Toy-truck models - page 53

3.PrepTest 36 (Dec 2001), Game 2 - Advanced Linear - Radio talk show host - page 279

4.PrepTest 33 (Dec 2000), Game 2 - Grouping: In-and-Out - Birds in the forest - page 177

5. PrepTest 33 (Dec 2000), Game 3 - Grouping: In-and-Out (Numerical Distribution) - Rubies, sapphires, and topazes - page 178

6. PrepTest 29 (Oct 1999), Game 1 - Grouping: Splitting - Accountant and 7 bills - page 32

7. PrepTest 38 (Oct 2002), Game 3 - Grouping: Matching (Templates) - Job applicants and management, production, sales - page 332


Definitions of Major Common Types of Logic Games:

Pure Sequencing = place variables in order with rules relating them to each other

Basic Linear = place variables in order with rules relating them to specific slots and (possibly) to each other

Advanced Linear = place variables in order with rules relating them to specifics slots (and possibly to each other) and relate variables of one type to variables of another type

Grouping: In-and-Out = choose some variables but not others.

Grouping: Splitting = divide variables into two different groups.

Grouping: Matching = associate variables of one type with variables of another type or with more than two groups.


Techniques:

Numerical Distribution = Create various combinations of *numbers* of variables to select from each category. Benefit - gives you a birds-eye view of the game without requiring you to draw every specific scenario. Useful in games with subcategories. More on this in Logic Game | Grouping: Selection Defined Diagram | Explanation.

Templates = Draw a few main diagrams instead of only one. Each main diagram you draw represents a different potential placement of the variables. Benefit - gives you a birds-eye view of every possible scenario. Useful in games with only a few major possibilities. More on this in Logic Game | Grouping: Matching Templates Diagram | Explanation.

Also see LSAT Logic Games Categorized by Type and 7 LSAT Logic Games Repeated on Future PrepTests.

Photo by poppalina / CC BY-NC 2.0

2-Month LSAT Study Schedule

Also see the 2-Month LSAT Study Schedule: Premium Day-By-Day Version.

2 months is a bit on the short side, but several of you requested a 2-month LSAT study schedule schedule, so here goes.

I've reviewed all books and PrepTests below in my best LSAT prep books post.

The following schedule is intense, but 2 months is less time than I'd recommend. If work/school/life obligations making anything resembling this schedule too difficult to follow, you'll probably achieve your highest potential score by allowing more than 2 months to study and taking the LSAT at a later date.

For the first 5 weeks of this schedule, I recommend working out of at least 6 PrepTests to build a strong foundation. These PrepTests should be anything prior to the June 2007 LSAT, since I've allocated that exam and the ones after it for full-length practice. They can be any 6 recent LSAT PrepTests. Ambitious test-takers with clear schedules may want to use more than 6 in the first 5 weeks of this schedule.

Month 1:

Review my relevant articles on Logic Games and complete this list of Logic Games from PrepTests 52-61 ordered by difficulty during the first 2 weeks.

Note: You may want to use different exams than the ones from 52-61 if you can. Feel free to use games from at least 6 PrepTests prior to the June 2007 LSAT (untimed) after completing the relevant section. You can use my list of Logic Games categorized by type (also see this list) to identify them. Review all games that give you difficulty.

Week 1: Complete Pure Sequencing, Basic Linear, and Advanced Linear games. Review each game that gives you trouble.

Week 2: Complete Grouping: In-Out / Selection, Grouping: Splitting, and Grouping: Matching games. Review each game that gives you trouble. Complete Combination games. Review each game that gives you trouble. Then complete a few timed sections of Logic Games.

Week 3: Review my articles on Logical Reasoning before completing LSAT questions of each type in PrepTests 52-61 using the LSAT Logical Reasoning spreadsheet (untimed). Review all questions that give you difficulty, whether or not you answer them incorrectly. Also complete a few timed sections of Logic Games.

Week 4: Continue work from previous week with additional Logical Reasoning question-types. When finished, complete a few timed sections of Logical Reasoning and a few timed sections of Logic Games.


Month 2:
Week 5: Read my articles on Reading Comprehension and complete several sections of Reading Comp (untimed). Complete a few timed sections of Reading Comprehension, as well as a few timed sections of Logic Games and Logical Reasoning.

For the remaining weeks, use these free Logic Games Explanations, these video explanations, and these other LSAT explanations after completing the relevant exam.

Week 6: Complete 3 recent LSAT PrepTests (timed). Splice in sections from another to simulate experimental sections. Review each exam on alternating days.

Week 7: Complete another 3 recent LSAT PrepTests (timed). Splice in sections from another to simulate experimental sections. Consider using one section to create a 6-section exam for extra practice. Review each exam on alternating days.

Week 8: Complete another 3 recent LSAT PrepTests (timed). Splice in sections from another to simulate experimental sections. (Again, consider using one section to create a 6-section exam). More thoughts on how to simulate the experimental section in this this article.

Finally, rock the LSAT on Test Day.

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Also check out my other sample LSAT study schedules and plans.

December 2009 LSAT | Questions and Answers

The December 2009 LSAT is rapidly approaching - only 7 weeks remaining. What would you like to see on the blog between now and then?

Please leave your questions for me (and for each other) in the comments, I'll do my best to answer as many of your questions as possible in future blog posts between now and December 5th.

Quick request: please leave a name rather than posting as "Anonymous." It makes it easier for everyone to respond to specific comments. Thanks!

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Also see: February 2010 LSAT | Questions and Answers.

Photo by lwr / CC BY-NC-SA 2.0